This article will discuss the main differences in Western and Eastern conceptions of the person and self. This article will compare differences that exist between the East and West, which include spiritual, emotional, psychological and sociological perspectives and how these differences relate to the differences in the concepts of person.
I chose this particular question as it appeared interesting to me and relative to my own life situation. I am a Caucasian Australian raised in rural western NSW, about to marry my fiancé who was born in the Philippines. I hoped to learn about how eastern cultures are different to my own western culture aside from the obvious material things such as wealth, food and appearance and to delve into some of the more spiritual, emotional, psychological, sociological and political differences that exist between the East and West.
Introduction:
Over the last century, the world has seen a number of significant events which has changed many aspects of the world. The industrialisation of the world and the co-occurrence in the massive increase of the worlds population as well as increases in immigration, intercontinental tourism and business have all contributed to huge changes in the human races social and cultural structures and sub structures and contact between different cultures. Governments of today’s states and the type of politics practiced are different, business’s influence over the masses has changed and socio-economic classes have become less defined and less segregated in parts of the world. The question of the conceptions of person can be best investigated by looking at the concept of self, as these concepts reflect each other.
Concept of person:
The concept of person is one which is as individual for each person as each person is different. Self concept can be defined individually by answering the question “Who am I”? Affiliations with social, religious, sporting, political or other groups as well as our personal views on our selves such as being an individual, special, generous, charitable, helpful, mean, angry, short, beautiful and any other labels that we can assign to ourselves add up to our self-concept. Concept of self can vary from individualism to collectivism. Individualism is the concept of giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than identifications. Collectivism is giving priority to the goals of ones group and defining one’s identity according to their group. Across the world, populations can be generally placed into either individualistic populations or more collectivist populations. The population of the United States of America can be generally labelled as being more individualist, however sub populations such as those living in some of the southern states of the USA may be classed as more collectivists (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008), (Berkow & Page, 1991).
Western concept of person:
Westerners concept of self, especially those who are affluent, mobile, live in urban surroundings and have common contact with mass media is based around individualistic ideas and views (Marshall, 1997), (Berkow & Page, 1991). Western views of self can be seen in many instances of popular culture.
Advertising campaigns such as those selling popular western products in weste
rn cultures can often be seen to be targeting individuals on an individual basis. Positive personal outcomes from using these products often are the main reasons depicted for buying or consuming these products. Slogans which inspire consumers to be special, better, faster, stronger and to get an edge over other people or to be different and more individual are all common themes amongst western advertising themes. Coca-Cola’s recent advertisements featuring the “coke side of life” slogan feature individuals enjoying adventurous times with the consuming of their beverages to be seen as a personal reward for completing the task (www.coca-cola.com). Nike uses clever images along with it's slogan "Just do it", to capture the consumers attention and make them feel that they can achieve personal success if they use their products.
I chose this particular question as it appeared interesting to me and relative to my own life situation. I am a Caucasian Australian raised in rural western NSW, about to marry my fiancé who was born in the Philippines. I hoped to learn about how eastern cultures are different to my own western culture aside from the obvious material things such as wealth, food and appearance and to delve into some of the more spiritual, emotional, psychological, sociological and political differences that exist between the East and West.
Introduction:
Over the last century, the world has seen a number of significant events which has changed many aspects of the world. The industrialisation of the world and the co-occurrence in the massive increase of the worlds population as well as increases in immigration, intercontinental tourism and business have all contributed to huge changes in the human races social and cultural structures and sub structures and contact between different cultures. Governments of today’s states and the type of politics practiced are different, business’s influence over the masses has changed and socio-economic classes have become less defined and less segregated in parts of the world. The question of the conceptions of person can be best investigated by looking at the concept of self, as these concepts reflect each other.
Concept of person:
The concept of person is one which is as individual for each person as each person is different. Self concept can be defined individually by answering the question “Who am I”? Affiliations with social, religious, sporting, political or other groups as well as our personal views on our selves such as being an individual, special, generous, charitable, helpful, mean, angry, short, beautiful and any other labels that we can assign to ourselves add up to our self-concept. Concept of self can vary from individualism to collectivism. Individualism is the concept of giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than identifications. Collectivism is giving priority to the goals of ones group and defining one’s identity according to their group. Across the world, populations can be generally placed into either individualistic populations or more collectivist populations. The population of the United States of America can be generally labelled as being more individualist, however sub populations such as those living in some of the southern states of the USA may be classed as more collectivists (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008), (Berkow & Page, 1991).
Western concept of person:
Westerners concept of self, especially those who are affluent, mobile, live in urban surroundings and have common contact with mass media is based around individualistic ideas and views (Marshall, 1997), (Berkow & Page, 1991). Western views of self can be seen in many instances of popular culture.
Advertising campaigns such as those selling popular western products in weste
rn cultures can often be seen to be targeting individuals on an individual basis. Positive personal outcomes from using these products often are the main reasons depicted for buying or consuming these products. Slogans which inspire consumers to be special, better, faster, stronger and to get an edge over other people or to be different and more individual are all common themes amongst western advertising themes. Coca-Cola’s recent advertisements featuring the “coke side of life” slogan feature individuals enjoying adventurous times with the consuming of their beverages to be seen as a personal reward for completing the task (www.coca-cola.com). Nike uses clever images along with it's slogan "Just do it", to capture the consumers attention and make them feel that they can achieve personal success if they use their products.Popular music often describes themes of personal nature and being rebellious or different. Music is a common element of youth culture which young people identify with and are influenced by. American Rap Artist Marshal Mathers better known as “Eminem” sings songs of rebelling against authority such as in his 2002 single, “sing for the moment” where he describes rebelling against parents, law and authority figures (Young & Mathers, 2002).
Other art forms common to western popular culture such as written and visual form often contain themes of individuality, rebellion and other common western concepts. J.K Rowlings’ Harry Potter, one of the most popular modern series of written form includes its main heroes, Harry Potter and Albus Dumbledore as being rebellious, different even outcast individuals. With many common themes to everyday children being depicted such as suffering from bullying, difficulty at home and difficulty with school work and teachers, readers are able to relate to the hero (Rowling, 2007).
Eastern concepts of person:
Collectivism is often seen as more dominant in many eastern cultures than individualism. Collectivists identify themselves in relation to those in their respective groups. In eastern cultures it can be seen that individuals see themselves as a member of a group and that priority goes toward the group rather than themselves. Differences in social structure right down to individual cognition can be observed(Berkow & Page, 1991),(Kitayama & Markus, 1995),
When shown a picture of a group of fish in an underwater environment, Easterners generally described a holistic picture, including the environment around the fish and the fish relative to each other. Americans generally concentrated on a single large fish (Nisbett & Masuda, 2003). This study identifies cultural differences in perspectives, with the westerners perspectives skewing toward individual observations whereas the Easterners observations were directed more to group and environmental perspectives.
When asked to select a pen out of five possible pens, four of which were one colour and one which was a different colour, Asians picked the like colour pen 69% of the time whereas Americans selected the differently coloured pen 77% of the time (Kim & Markus, 1999). This study highlights the Eastern cultures partiality to compliance and Western cultures toward uniqueness and non compliance.
In contrast to western advertising campaigns for products like the campaigns described above, coca-cola used different advertising gimmicks to reach it’s target consumers in eastern cultures. During the Ramadan period of 1998, coca-cola featured a commercial in a number of Islamic countries showing a boy and his mother donating a basket of food and coca-cola to an orphanage. The boy plays with the orphans at the orphanage and at the end of the day the boy shares the coke together with his new friends when they’re allowed to finish their fast. The commercial ends with “Always in good spirit. Always Coca-Cola'' (American Library of Congress). This commercial demonstrates targeting of family, friendship and coexistence in eastern cultures, as opposed to the more western commercials demonstrating more competition, dramatization and individualist ideals.
Main differences in Eastern and Western concepts of person:
In considering the question "Are we ready for the entire field to move to the formal, experimental stage when we have yet to determine whether the 800 million Hindus in India or 125 million Japanese have the same sense of self that we do, the same social motives, or the same attributional biases that have found to be typical of American college students?", two important texts can be considered.
One of the foundations of Western Culture and also one of the most sold books in history, the bible, describes how the world was created. “And God saw the light, that it was good; and God divided the light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night." (Holy Bible, Genesis, I, 4-5). The story of “good vs. evil” runs throughout the bible, with clear divisions between the two.
To compare to an Eastern philosophy, "When love and hate are both absent everything becomes clear and undisguised. Make the smallest distinction, however, and heaven and earth are set infinitely far apart. If you wish to see the truth then hold no opinions for or against anything. To set up what you like against what you dislike is the disease of the mind." (Buddha, The Dhammapada).
Division can be seen to be an amazing act in western religion whereas division is likened to disease in Buddhism. Through observations from the studies discussed in the above sections, differences in how peoples cognitions function, where people fit into social structures and how those social structures operate can be seen when comparing people from eastern and western cultures. It can be seen then that indeed Americans sense of self is very different to Japanese and other Asian peoples. This would suggest that a movement to a single formal stage practised for people from such different cultures would not be a practical or productive measure to be taken.
References:
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social psychology and human nature (1st
ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Buddha, The Dhammapada.
ftp://coombs.anu.edu.au/coombspapers/otherarchives/electronic-buddhist-archives/buddhism-general/e-texts/sutras-translations/dhammapada-english-transl.txt
Highlights in the History of Coca-Cola Television Advertising, American Library of congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ccmphtml/colahist.html#intrn
Holy Bible, the new King James version (2000). The Gideons international in Australia
Kim, H., & Markus H. R. (1999). Deviance of uniqueness, harmony or conformity? A cultural analysis. Journal of Personality and social psychology, 77, 785-800.
Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R., (1995). Culture and Self: Implications for internationalizing psychology. The culture and psychology reader. New York: New York University Press
Marshall, R. (1997). Variances in levels of individualism across to cultures and three social classes. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 28, 490-495.
Nisbet, R. E., & Masuda, T. (2003). Culture and point of view. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 11163-11170
Page, R. C., & Berkow, D. N. (1991). Concepts of the self: Western and eastern perspectives. Journal of Multicultural Counselling and Development, 19, 2, 83-93
Rowling, J. K. (2007). Harry Potter Series. Bloomsbury
Young, A. R., (Producer) & Mathers, M. B. (Writer). (2002). The Eminem Show, United States: Aftermath Entertainment
Other art forms common to western popular culture such as written and visual form often contain themes of individuality, rebellion and other common western concepts. J.K Rowlings’ Harry Potter, one of the most popular modern series of written form includes its main heroes, Harry Potter and Albus Dumbledore as being rebellious, different even outcast individuals. With many common themes to everyday children being depicted such as suffering from bullying, difficulty at home and difficulty with school work and teachers, readers are able to relate to the hero (Rowling, 2007).
Eastern concepts of person:
Collectivism is often seen as more dominant in many eastern cultures than individualism. Collectivists identify themselves in relation to those in their respective groups. In eastern cultures it can be seen that individuals see themselves as a member of a group and that priority goes toward the group rather than themselves. Differences in social structure right down to individual cognition can be observed(Berkow & Page, 1991),(Kitayama & Markus, 1995),
When shown a picture of a group of fish in an underwater environment, Easterners generally described a holistic picture, including the environment around the fish and the fish relative to each other. Americans generally concentrated on a single large fish (Nisbett & Masuda, 2003). This study identifies cultural differences in perspectives, with the westerners perspectives skewing toward individual observations whereas the Easterners observations were directed more to group and environmental perspectives.
When asked to select a pen out of five possible pens, four of which were one colour and one which was a different colour, Asians picked the like colour pen 69% of the time whereas Americans selected the differently coloured pen 77% of the time (Kim & Markus, 1999). This study highlights the Eastern cultures partiality to compliance and Western cultures toward uniqueness and non compliance.
In contrast to western advertising campaigns for products like the campaigns described above, coca-cola used different advertising gimmicks to reach it’s target consumers in eastern cultures. During the Ramadan period of 1998, coca-cola featured a commercial in a number of Islamic countries showing a boy and his mother donating a basket of food and coca-cola to an orphanage. The boy plays with the orphans at the orphanage and at the end of the day the boy shares the coke together with his new friends when they’re allowed to finish their fast. The commercial ends with “Always in good spirit. Always Coca-Cola'' (American Library of Congress). This commercial demonstrates targeting of family, friendship and coexistence in eastern cultures, as opposed to the more western commercials demonstrating more competition, dramatization and individualist ideals.
Main differences in Eastern and Western concepts of person:
In considering the question "Are we ready for the entire field to move to the formal, experimental stage when we have yet to determine whether the 800 million Hindus in India or 125 million Japanese have the same sense of self that we do, the same social motives, or the same attributional biases that have found to be typical of American college students?", two important texts can be considered.
One of the foundations of Western Culture and also one of the most sold books in history, the bible, describes how the world was created. “And God saw the light, that it was good; and God divided the light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night." (Holy Bible, Genesis, I, 4-5). The story of “good vs. evil” runs throughout the bible, with clear divisions between the two.
To compare to an Eastern philosophy, "When love and hate are both absent everything becomes clear and undisguised. Make the smallest distinction, however, and heaven and earth are set infinitely far apart. If you wish to see the truth then hold no opinions for or against anything. To set up what you like against what you dislike is the disease of the mind." (Buddha, The Dhammapada).
Division can be seen to be an amazing act in western religion whereas division is likened to disease in Buddhism. Through observations from the studies discussed in the above sections, differences in how peoples cognitions function, where people fit into social structures and how those social structures operate can be seen when comparing people from eastern and western cultures. It can be seen then that indeed Americans sense of self is very different to Japanese and other Asian peoples. This would suggest that a movement to a single formal stage practised for people from such different cultures would not be a practical or productive measure to be taken.
References:
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social psychology and human nature (1st
ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Buddha, The Dhammapada.
ftp://coombs.anu.edu.au/coombspapers/otherarchives/electronic-buddhist-archives/buddhism-general/e-texts/sutras-translations/dhammapada-english-transl.txt
Highlights in the History of Coca-Cola Television Advertising, American Library of congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ccmphtml/colahist.html#intrn
Holy Bible, the new King James version (2000). The Gideons international in Australia
Kim, H., & Markus H. R. (1999). Deviance of uniqueness, harmony or conformity? A cultural analysis. Journal of Personality and social psychology, 77, 785-800.
Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R., (1995). Culture and Self: Implications for internationalizing psychology. The culture and psychology reader. New York: New York University Press
Marshall, R. (1997). Variances in levels of individualism across to cultures and three social classes. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 28, 490-495.
Nisbet, R. E., & Masuda, T. (2003). Culture and point of view. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 11163-11170
Page, R. C., & Berkow, D. N. (1991). Concepts of the self: Western and eastern perspectives. Journal of Multicultural Counselling and Development, 19, 2, 83-93
Rowling, J. K. (2007). Harry Potter Series. Bloomsbury
Young, A. R., (Producer) & Mathers, M. B. (Writer). (2002). The Eminem Show, United States: Aftermath Entertainment
